Friedman, J. S. & Krus, D. J. (1983) Imagery and success: are dimensions of mental imagery valid predictors of the accumulation of wealth? Educational and Psychological Measurement, 43, 557-562.

Imagery and success: are dimensions of mental imagery valid predictors of the accumulation of wealth?
 
Jeffrey S. Friedman
International College
David J. Krus
Arizona State University

Summary.-A short version of the 1909 Betts’ Questionnaire Upon Mental Imagery was used to discriminate among four groups of subjects defined on the basis of earned income. The identified factors of mental imagery were valid in differentiating between low and high income groups with age, sex, and educational level partialled out.
 
For the last 30 years the search for determinants of successful performance has revolved around an approach pioneered by McClelland and his associates (McClelland, 1976; McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, and Lowell, 1953). The McClelland group favored the quantitative scrutiny of antecedents of successful performance via content analysis of stories elicited by TAT-like visual stimuli; the rationale behind this approach was anchored in Murray’s theory of personality and in sociological theories of Max Weber.

An alternative tradition of the study of mental imagery can be traced to Fechner, Galton, and Betts. One of the earliest quantitative studies of imagery was conducted in 1860 by Fechner. In 1883 Galton published his ‘breakfast table questionnaire’ and in 1909 Betts developed a comprehensive paper-and-pencil questionnaire to measure vividness of mental imagery as an adaptation of Galton’s questionnaire.
Recently, interest in Bett’s questionnaire was revived (Richardson, 1969; Sheenan, 1967). Conceptual analysis of the new findings, elaborated within the Fechner-Galton-Betts tradition, suggested that this theoretical approach might complement research within the Murray-Weber-McClelland tradition of scrutiny of mental imagery as related to need for achievement.

The purpose of the study reported in the present communication was to determine whether measures of dimensions of mental imagery, elaborated within the Fechner-Galton-Betts tradition, are valid predictors of membership in categories of ‘affluence,’ defined by income level.

Method

A short version (Sheenan, 1967) of the original 1909 Betts Questionnaire Upon Mental Imagery (QMI) and a separate list of questions that pertained to assessment of success, outcomes of imagery-related activities, and vividness of sensory recall, were administered to four groups of subjects. Subjects’ average age was 37.9 years (SD = 10.92). The sample consisted of 29 males and 17 females of varied educational background and highly discrepant economic status. The low income group ($0 - $10,000 adjusted gross income per year) consisted of subjects drawn from persons frequenting a Phoenix, Arizona public dining room, administered by the St. Vincent de Paul’s charity. Responses of the high income group (adjusted gross yearly income of $100,000 plus) were solicited by direct mail addressed to prominent persons in the Phoenix area. Subjects classified to intermediate groups ($10,000 to $39,000 and $40,000 to $99,000) were recruited from local bank employees, merchants, and other members of Phoenix business community.

Results

Principal component analysis of the QMI questionnaire returned nine eigenvalues greater than one that accounted for 79% of the total test score variance. Following Kaiser’s criterion, nine were retained. Squared multiple correlations were used as communality estimates in the principal factors analysis. Communalities were iterated until they converged. Convergence required 17 iterations. Following the orthogonal rotation by Varimax, seven factors were retained. The obtained factorial structure, Closely corresponding to one obtained by Richardson (1969), served to index the basic sense modalities: visual, auditory, cutaneous, kinesthetic, olfactory, gustatory, and proprioceptive.

Scores on these seven factorially derived scales were correlated with the criterion variable of monetary success with variables of age, sex, and educational level partialled out. The third order partial correlations of the predictor variables with the criterion variable are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Partial Correlations of Imagery Scales with Income

The highest correlation was found for the kinesthetic modality, consisting of images as ‘running upstairs’ and ‘reaching up.’ The next highest correlation was the gustatory modality followed by proprioceptive and visual modalities.

Results of a multiple regression analysis with Income as a criterion variable are presented in Table 2. The regression analysis was stepwise. Only scales significantly increasing multiple R were included. Inclusion of  gender, and educational level variables was forced after the prior entry of the Imagery Scales.

Table 2. Stepwise Multiple Regression of Imagery Scales, Gender, and Education on Income  on Income level.

Imagery accounted for 13% of the variance of the criterion variable, education for another 13%, and gender of the subjects for 14%. Together, the predictors accounted for 40% of variance.

Discussion

Results of this study are evidence of a positive relationship between vividness of mental imagery and achievement as measured by monetary success. Persons considering themselves to be imaginative had higher income than those reporting themselves to be either practical or concrete. These findings have implications for the development of programs in which training to use vivid mental imagery, within specific sensory modalities, could be used to increase achievement. The vividness of mental imagery can be potential determinants of success in other areas where achievement is evaluated by using criteria other than the monetary criterion used here.

References

Betts, G.H. (1909) The distribution and functions of mental imagery. New York: Columbia University Press.
Fechner, G.T. (1860, 1966) Elements of psychophysics. New York: Holt.
Galton, F. (1883) Inquires into human faculty and its development. London: Macmillan.
Garfield, C.A. (1979) Stress and survival. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby.
McClelland, D.C. (1976) The achieving society. New York: Irvington.
McClelland, D.C., Atkinson, J.W., Clark, R.A., and Lowell, E.L. (1953) The achievement motive. New York: Irvington.
Richardson, A. (1969) Mental imagery. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Sheenan, P.W. (1967) Reliability of a short test of imagery. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 25, 744.